He has authored three books: The Sunken Gold, Seventeen Fathoms Deep, and Four Years Before the Mast. Related read: The Fighting Men & Women of the Fetterman Massacre. His death was devastating to the cause of the Dog Soldiers and the Cheyenne people. This helped to separate the Dog Soldiers even farther from the standard Cheyenne way of living. They are a deeply valuable record of a culture and history that has undergone dramatic change in the intervening generations. Chivington marched in triumph through Denver with 100 scalps. (2) Contemporary wolf headdress, possibly in the warrior style of traditional Cheyenne dog soldiers with white painted face with stark dark streaks and black lips. Obviously, early on the Dog Soldiers did not speak for all the Cheyenne. These scouts, who were citizens and not career soldiers, were under the leadership of Major George A. Forsyth. The US government pressured tribal leaders to sign a treaty reducing native territories to make way for the newcomers, but the Dog Soldiers refused to abide by the agreement. Definition of dog soldier 1 : a member of one of the war societies of the Cheyenne. [7] Porcupine Bear was expelled from the Dog Soldiers, and he and his relatives had to camp apart from the rest of the Cheyenne. The Dog Men began to sing, and the man listened very attentively and learned several songs from them, their ceremony, and their dancing forms. And that's just a taste of the complex world of Cheyenne warrior societies. They witness the scene, but when they return with some leaders, the lodge and the magical warriors disappear before their eyes. The next steps, according toHistoryNet, were a series of negotiations that went nowhere, as far as Tall Bull was concerned. While he sang the people noticed that now and then the large and small dogs throughout the camp whined and howled and were restless. Roman Nose wasn't the only warrior who used a war bonnet. They died in large numbers. The Cheyenne in the film . cheyenne dog soldier tattoo. George Bird Grinnell tells a story reported by Tall Bull, a Cheyenne Dog Soldier chief. Typically, orders of $35 USD or more (within the same shop) qualify for free standard shipping from participating Etsy sellers. After the Battle of Beecher's Island, many Dog Soldiers were forced to retreat south of the Arkansas River. The Cheyenne Indians were far-ranging people, especially once they acquired horses. The Dog Soldiers assumed police duties during this expedition and succeeded in preventing the troops from discovering the presence of the Indians until decoys had lured them out of the fort. They attempted to hold their traditional lands at Smoky Hill, but the campaigns of General Philip Sheridan foiled these efforts. Take full advantage of our site features by enabling JavaScript. Little Shield also fought in the Battle of Little Bighorn, leading the Dog Soldiers. Two years after his birth, in 1837, there occurred an event that was to profoundly affect his lifea warrior named Porcupine Bear murdered Little Creek in a drunken fight. This simplistic tattoo stays faithful to that trend. The story of this wonderful retreat is well known and is worthy of a place beside that of philosopher Xenephon or that of the equally great retreat of Chief Joseph. He apparently knew nothing of Indians and insisted upon dealing only with Roman Nose, who, though a very prominent warrior, was not a chief at all. No doubt members of the Dog Soldiers Society were present at the Custer battle, and perhaps at the capture of Dull Knifes village, but with this surrender at Darlington, the military life of the organization may be said to have come to an end. The complex, fascinating tale of the Cheyenne Dog Soldiers is no exception. In 1865 another attempt was made to hold a council and make a treaty with the Cheyenne, Arapahoe, Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache. Please. And what if you committed some misdeed and were caught by the Dog Warriors? $19.99, $39.98 The dog became also their emblem and was regarded as sacred. There's even evidence, saysJohn H. Moore, that they went so far as to conduct their own ceremonies apart from the rest of the Cheyenne, which would have been an earthshaking break from tradition. Nor was he supposed to eat food that had been prepared with metal. The dog soldiers who were a military society comprised of southern cheyenne, Northern Cheyenne and Lakotas , played a dominant role in the Cheyenne resistance to American expansion in the traditional territory of the Cheyenne, which includes Colorado.. What does dog mean in Native American? The history of the Cheyenne Dog Soldiers. Few in number, they overcame or held in check most of the peoples who opposed them, and when the westward movement of European civilization began, they made more trouble than all the rest combined. The Cheyenne began to intermarry with the Lakota in that territory. [8][11] In the wake of the cholera epidemic in 1849, which greatly reduced the Masikota band of Cheyenne,[12] the remaining Masikota joined the Dog Soldiers. By the rules governing military societies, a man who murdered or accidentally killed another member of his tribe had blood on his hands and was prohibited from joining a society. It was often called upon to perform police duties in a large camp and enjoyed certain privileges in the tribe, such as the right to kill any fat dog whenever a feast was in order. This miracle was soon reported back to the Cheyenne, who told Sweet Medicine. Chiefs were each responsible for local affairs and the well-being of their people. Sioux Sitting Bull, pictured, was one of the Sioux's most famous leaders. Historically, 19th-century Dog Soldiers wore dramatic upright bonnets incorporating raven or crow feathers. Dog Soldiers, along with other members of military societies, also managed tribal hunts and sacred ceremonies. The Dog Soldiers were the most powerful and militant of the Cheyenne tribe's six military societies. This made them more cohesive and certainly they grew more powerful in comparison to the other military societies of the Cheyenne. They resisted attempts to sign treaties with the US government and others, arguing that it would lead only to betrayal. They also killed many among the Hisiometanio (Ridge Men) under White Antelope. After their defeat by the buffalo hunters at Adobe Walls, Texas in 1874 and the capture of the Southern Cheyenne village by Colonel R. S. McKenzie in 1875, White Horse, with the Dog Soldiers, came in and surrendered at Darlington, Oklahoma. For some, they were frightening figures, conducting raids and tearing up peace treaties left and right. The Dog Soldiers or Dog Men (Cheyenne Hotamtaneo'o) was one of six military societies of the Cheyenne Indians. Over time, the Dog Soldiers took a prominent leadership role in the wars against the whites. [2][17], A strong band numbering perhaps 100 lodges, the Dog Soldiers were hostile to the encroaching whites. The climate of Oklahoma did not agree with the Cheyenne from Montana. Amber Fox and Gold Fox, with the fox logos tattooed on. About 1830 all the men of the Masiskota Cheyenne band and joined the Dog Soldiers The society was then comprised of about half the men in the tribe and was the most distinct, important, and aggressive of all the warrior societies of the Cheyenne. He and his warriors were reportedly the first to strike the enemy, considered an honor,[8][10] but due to their status as outlaws, their feat was not celebrated. You've got to really prove yourself to earn one of these. These were led by war chiefs and their purpose was to ensure that the social norms of the tribe were being followed. Campbell, 1921. Only a much more detailed narration could give any proper idea of the splendid courageoften in the face of overwhelming oddsdisplayed by members of this organization, times without number, in battle, whether against United States troops, Mexicans, or other Indian tribes. The story of his death as narrated to me by the late George Bent of Colony, Oklahoma, has elements of tragic interest. During four months of active campaigning, General Hancock, with a force of fourteen hundred men, consisting of cavalry, artillery, and infantry, succeeded in killing only two hostile Indians. It is notable that there is some confusion as to which societies were organized first. These included the famously warlike Dog Soldiers, who drew upon their artistic skills to capture history. [citation needed], The two central institutions of traditional Cheyenne tribal governance are the Council of Forty-Four[2] and the military societies, the Dog Soldiers. He did not desire to enter the battle, believing that he would be killed because the protective power of his war bonnet had been destroyed. To what end should they restrict themselves for people who had massacred them only a few years ago? This would lead to fierce warfare for decades. There, they adopted the horse, turning toward the nomadic way of life for which they became famous. Cheyenne. The Cheyenne, who've ranged from Montana to Oklahoma to Colorado, to name a few places, merged into one tribe in the early 19th century, under mounting pressure from the United States military and a growing tide of settlers. Under Add your personalization, the text box will tell you what the seller needs to know. They had one chief and seven assistants, of whom four were leaders in battle, chosen on account of their extraordinary courage. More recently, Native American soldiers serving in Iraq, like Lt. Bill Cody Ayon, talked about the importance of Dog Soldier traditions to their own spiritual and cultural lives. The Luna was designed with a focus on shading, especially black and grey shading work, but the machine can work for lining as well.This is thanks to the two available operating modes: Sensidrive and Hardrive The Dog Soldiers were the most powerful and militant of the Cheyenne tribe's six military societies, gaining notoriety during the Indian . Related read: 10 Facts You May Not Know About Quanah Parker, the Last Chief of the Comanche. Many of the dead were defenseless women and children. Dog's grandaughter, Florence Whiteman was the last woman warrior among the Cheyenne. cheyenne dog soldier tattooblack rain ordnance complete lowerblack rain ordnance complete lower That meant Roman Nose could never shake hands, for example. This treaty was accepted as binding by most of the Cheyenne, but the Dog Soldiers would have nothing to do with it, though two attempts were made to induce them to leave lands which they had never ceded to the government. At sunset, he began to sing a sacred song. The Cheyenne dog soldier carried with him a leather tassel with porcupine quills attached. The Sand Creek Massacre proved to many that the Dog Soldiers had been right all along. Dog Soldier by Frank McCarthy at The Museum of Western Art. [12] Losses in the Sand Creek Massacre of 1864 further disrupted the traditional Cheyenne kinship system. Early on, the tips of these feathers also featured plumage from smaller birds, until it was replaced in its final form by red down. [13] During the mid-1860s, Dog Soldier leaders, including Tall Bull and White Horse, frequently called on the great warrior Roman Nose, a Crooked Lance society member, to lead Dog Soldier strikes against white civilian and military assets. Historically, Dog Soldiers have been regarded as both highly aggressive and effective combatants. remembering account, browser, and regional preferences, remembering privacy and security settings, personalized search, content, and recommendations, helping sellers understand their audience, showing relevant, targeted ads on and off Etsy. Little Shield (Cheyenne language: A-che-kan-koo-eni) was a chieftain of the Northern Cheyenne from 1865-1879. Hand colored photographs of drawings from Fort Reno Scout ledger, 1906. During the twentieth century, Dog Soldiers have served with the United States military in two World Wars and in the conflicts in Korea, Vietnam, and the Persian Gulf region. As Smithsonian Magazine put it, Sand Creek was the My Lai of its day, a war crime exposed by soldiers and condemned by the U.S. government. Captcha failed to load. These Indians were imprisoned in Fort Robinson, and on their refusing to return to the south were starved by the officer in charge for eight days. The Dog Soldiers or Dog Men (Cheyenne Hotamtaneo'o) are historically one of six military societies of the Cheyenne Indians. Normally, a man would go to live with his wife's people. One morning the young man went through the entire camp and to the center of the camp circle, announcing that he was about to form a society. Little Wolf Courageous Leaderof the Cheyenne, W.S. Fifty-two Cheyenne were killed, including Tall Bull himself. The Dog Soldiers and the Masikota, who by that time operated as a band, were not at Sand Creek during the massacre.[15]. The Dog Soldiers band took as its territory the headwaters country of the Republican and Smoky Hill rivers in southern Nebraska, northern Kansas, and the northeast of Colorado Territory. It is estimated that this war party numbered three thousand men. Found something you love but want to make it even more uniquely you? [7][8] The Dog Soldiers were disgraced by Porcupine Bear's act. Etsy uses cookies and similar technologies to give you a better experience, enabling things like: Detailed information can be found in Etsys Cookies & Similar Technologies Policy and our Privacy Policy. The peace then made by the Dog Soldiers has never been broken. (Today, the federal government recognizes two different Nations from the larger tribe: the Southern Cheyenne and Northern Cheyenne.). Some leaders, like the powerful Dog Warrior called Tall Bull, led their people away to the north. The idea was that, during battle, someone carrying the dog rope would pin one end to the ground and fix the other end to themselves. The first four of these military societies were organized by Sweet Water: the Swift Foxes, Elks, Bowstrings, and Red Shields. The warrior was not permitted to remove the spike on his own, it was considered a dishonor to do so. 3 slang : soldier, dogface. One modern recreation, worn by Jesse Lee of the Northern Cheyenne tribe, contains feathers from bald eagles, golden eagles, hawks, and vultures. After a long night, the man gets up and walks out of camp. In 1864, Chief Black Kettle led a group of Cheyenne to Big Sandy Creek in eastern Colorado. Compiled and edited by, Byways & Historic Trails Great Drives in America, Soldiers and Officers in American History, Washington-on-the-Brazos, Texas Declaring Independence, Stanley, Ks Extinct but Still Here (LOK), Black Bob Reservation in Johnson County (LOK). This separatist movement was led by Porcupine Bear, who was in effect exiled from the Cheyenne over a violent incident which alienated all of the Dog Soldiers. After a frightening encounter with Dog Soldiers, and taken back to their camp, they are finally accepted as friends, made more emotional when Barbara Hershey sadly tells the tribe what had happened to their ancestors after they escaped capture in the late 1800s, then making them laugh about men walking on the moon. In the middle of the bonnet, running down to the back, were black and white eagle feathers. A Dog Soldier could only be saved from this situation by someone else. Featuring a miniature bust tattoo of a soldier on the chest, this tattoo pays a tribute to the traditional symbols that were popular with the servicemen in the armies. This also helped lead to the breakdown of traditional Cheyenne matrilineal society. The warriors became a significant counter-influence to the leadership of the traditional Council of Forty-Four chiefs, who were likely to favor working for peace with the whites.[16]. Does shopping on Etsy help support small businesses? Eventually, two Cheyenne come along, wondering what happened to that strange young man and all of the dogs in their camp. Roman Nose, the most famous of the Northern Cheyenne, and a prominent Dog Soldier, led a charge and was killed by one of the scouts hidden in the grass. Turning off the personalized advertising setting wont stop you from seeing Etsy ads or impact Etsy's own personalization technologies, but it may make the ads you see less relevant or more repetitive. Tangle Hair, head chief of the Dog Soldiers, was one of those who fled to the north, but the real leader of the expedition was Little Wolf. Later, the Cheyenne discovered the camp. He is known for creating a collection of ledger drawings accounting the Indian wars along the North Platte river. Fill out the requested information. The Council of Forty-Four is the council of chiefs, comprising four chiefs from each of the ten Cheyenne bands, plus four principal[3] or "Old Man" chiefs, known to have had previously served with distinction on the council. But this brief enumeration of the principal engagements of the Dog Soldiers may help to explain how it was that the United States government in its campaigns against the Cheyenne spent a million dollars and lost twenty-four lives for every Cheyenne killed. Even before the appearance of white settlers on the Great Plains, the Cheyenne people had established the tradition of military societies, which acted as community defenders, law enforcement, and even as a kind of sacred fraternity for the men of the tribe. The man continues, but nobody hears him none of the humans, that is. Dog Soldiers had their own ceremonies and in 1837 separated from the rest of Cheyenne society. When the smoke cleared, Colonel John M. Chivington's Related read: The Meeker Massacres Tragic History and Legacy. There was a problem subscribing you to this newsletter. The powers of a warrior society in doing police duty were great, and their punishments severe against those who violated camp regulations. Accordingly, the Dog Soldiers led a campaign against the Pawnee, but, finding them re-enforced by a number of Pottawatomie, equipped with firearms, were forced to withdraw. They were pursued by US Army forces commanded by Eugene A. Carr, who attacked them. As in other Plains tribes, the warriors of the Cheyenne were organized into societies or orders. Dog's account provides additional detail about what the free Sioux and Cheyenne knew regarding the whereabouts of the American invaders on the morning of June 25, 1876, as well as testimony to the presence of girl warriors among the "Suicide Boys.". The Dog Men blessed the man and promised that he should be successful in all of his undertakings and that his people, his society, and his band would become the greatest of all if he carried out their instructions.. According to Cheyenne Memories, the Dog Men, or what was also called the Dog Soldiers, appeared after Sweet Medicine had already established the first four. These bonnets had immense cultural importance not only to the Cheyenne, but to other Plains tribes as well. The Sioux were not the first tribe to fight the U.S. government, and they weren't the last, but they might be the most famous. Calling them "police" doesn't quite get at the heart of their role in day-to-day Cheyenne life. With their genesis comes an intriguing founding myth. These were set so they all pointed upward but were also jumbled in different directions. 22"H x 22" Dia. Little is known of his early life. Gates and Sloan are captured but soon bond with the Dog Soldiers, which makes things difficult when the sheriff (Kurtwood Smith, RoboCop) comes looking for them with a posse. Partially to enforce the laws of the council and also to maintain the peace and hunting grounds, Sweet Medicine had also created military societies. The prophet asserted he knew all about it. On September 7, 1868, a large party of Plains tribesmen, likely numbering several hundred, led them against a contingent of fifty scouts on a sandbar in the Arikaree River in Colorado. As described by the myth, now and then the large and small dogs throughout the camp whined and howled and were restless.. A Dog Soldier warrior, from a northern band of Southern Cheyenne. The Dog Soldiers or Dog Men (Cheyenne: Hotamtaneo'o) are historically one of six Cheyenne military societies. This change was dramatic. His punishment for this act, dictated by tribal law, was banishment from the Cheyenne. He then led the dogs down to a river, where they gathered in a circle about him. Looking at the long string of such treachery against many other tribes, can you blame them? Chief Laban Little Wolf Northern Cheyenne warrior, later chief. The tribes took casualties, including Roman Nose, who while not a Dog Soldier himself, nevertheless led them into battle. At this time the Dog Soldiers were friendly, but the tactlessness of General Winfield Hancock soon drove them to hostility. By 1840 the Dog Soldiers were so nervous and influential that the Cheyenne chiefs left it to them to decide whether or not peace should be made with the Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache, following the very disastrous drawn battle with these tribes in 1838. The dogs of the settlement, meanwhile, are paying close attention. Description: Dog Soldier Feather Society headdress with brain tanned buffalo cap, blue and white beaded brow band, Crow feathers tipped with ermine drops, eight personal feathers removed and later restored. knoxville police department hiring process. The lodge was formed of the skins of the buffalo. They're still here, carrying on their traditions, holding their ground, and defending their people. The other medicine men had had no difficulty in establishing their societies, but this young man, when his turn came to organize, was ridiculed, for he was not a medicine-man, and had no influence to induce others to follow his leadership. The awesome warriors were armed to the teeth with revolvers and bows proud, haughty, defiant as should become those who are to grant favors, not beg them.. Many elements of their militancy and bravery still carry through to this day, with whispers of the society still passing on its ideals of never giving up to the next generation. Each of the feathers in the sculpture are bronze and were cast individually and the fringes were made one at a time. This paper examine s all known . Now, these weren't any old pieces of rope found around camp. The people in their lodges fell asleep. It's got a solid script, great performances - especially by the late Steven Reevis as Yellow Tail . This marked the end of Cheyenne resistance upon the southern Plains. Due to an increasing division between the Dog Soldiers and the council chiefs with respect to policy toward the whites, the Dog Soldiers became separated from the other Southern Cheyenne bands. The lodge included the leaning tree by which the man sat; there were three other saplings, trimmed at the base with the boughs left at the top. While some Cheyenne leaders, like Chief Black Kettle, attempted reconciliation and appeasement, the Dog Soldiers very rarely did the same. However, their militancy and the fact that they led raids into American settlements caused some of the Cheyenne to view the Dog Soldiers as outlaws. Folds for storage in a parfleche case. His feathered war bonnet was supposed to protect him, but only if he followed strict rules. Campbell, 1921. Originally posted by Joop: They are the preorder ones I think. The Dog Soldiers of the Cheyenne were tremendous warriors. He carried it to the various Cheyenne and Arapaho camps in order to gain support for revenge against the Kiowa. In short, they were preeminently warriors among peoples whose trade was war. It took over leading warfare against the Kiowa. Body parts were taken as trophies. But as they came into view of the wonderful camp the Dog lodge instantly disappeared and the Dog-Men were transformed into dogs. Campbell in 1921 The awesome warriors were "armed to the teeth with revolvers and bows proud, haughty, defiant as should become those who are to grant favors, not beg them." An Ohio reporter covering the negotiations at Medicine Lodge, Kansas on October 27, 1867. Again he sang; then he walked out to the opening of the camp circle, singing as he went. Corral, but Virgil Earp, In the last half of the 1800s, the bustling port town of San Francisco, which grew out of, If you are a fan of the Paramount+ series Yellowstone (and who isnt? To the Cheyenne, this was proof that the Dog Soldiers had been right all along. [13][16][17] They were allies of the Sioux-speaking Lakota and Brul Lakota, who also frequented that area. The Third Colorado Cavalry caused heavy casualties among the Wutapai (Black Kettle's band); and killed perhaps half of the Hevhaitaniu under Yellow Wolf and Big Man, and half the Oivimana under War Bonnet. Later, during the wars with the United States, the Dog Soldiers modified the bonnet so that it was made up of upright, encircling eagle feathers. The Dog Soldiers rallied Cheyenne and Arapaho tribesmen together to wreak havoc on the Colorado ranching industry. CHEYENNE SOLDIER SOCIETIES by Karen D. Petersen ABSTRACT There has been considerable ambiguity as to the identity of the Cheyenne soldier societies. While many of the items on Etsy are handmade, youll also find craft supplies, digital items, and more. Before the outbreak, he had been told that he and his family might leave the prison, but he as well as the other Dog Soldiers refused to consider such a step. First, there was a good chance that your disciplining was going to be very public. The text as it appears here; however, is not verbatim as it has been edited for clarity and ease of the modern reader. By the time the Americans met them they were living on the Great Plains in what is now South Dakota, Wyoming, Nebraska, Colorado, and Kansas. Accordingly, in 1860, they refused to sign the treaty submitted by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs at Bents Fort on the upper Arkansas River, saying that they would never settle on a reservation. After the deaths of . Consistently earned 5-star reviews, shipped orders on time, and replied quickly to messages, Looks like you already have an account! In this fight more than a third of the Indians, men, women, and children, were killed, among them Tangle Hair, Chief of the Dog Soldiers. A Dog Soldier warrior chief every bit as respected as Roman Nose, Bull Bear (O-toah-nac-co) was born about 1835. They eventually became a separatist resistance group in the 1830s, conducting raids and attacks without the consent of leaders and some tribespeople. When autocomplete results are available use up and down arrows to review and enter to select. For others, the Dog Warriors were heroes defending a people in peril. Never mind that Black Kettle had raised an American flag as a sign of peace. He was killed attempting to stand off the soldiers while the women and children made their escape. Porcupine Bear didn't accept his punishment peacefully, however. The story of his death as narrated to me by the late George Bent of Colony, Oklahoma, has elements of tragic interest. When in battle in the defense of his village the dog soldier would tie the tassel around his body and using a metal spike, stake himself into the ground. Check out our cheyenne dog soldier selection for the very best in unique or custom, handmade pieces from our prints shops. It is true that by the 19th century, there was a complete reorganization of Cheyenne society. The society came to prominence during the Indian resistance against American expansionism in the mid-1800s. Some of the technologies we use are necessary for critical functions like security and site integrity, account authentication, security and privacy preferences, internal site usage and maintenance data, and to make the site work correctly for browsing and transactions. Tangle Hair and a number of the Dog Soldiers had split off from the main party and followed Dull Knife. Cheyenne Dog Soldier By W.S. This is why the other warrior societies call the warriors of this society Dog-Men Warriors. So much for the fabulous origin of the organization. It seems that Roman Nose depended for protection upon his war bonnet and that the protective power of this war bonnet depended upon his observance of certain taboos. Though the Dog Soldiers never approached the political and military power they once had, they remained revered by other Cheyenne. One of the most interesting warrior society from their forming in the early 19 century. In Cheyenne and 7 military societies; the Dog Soldiers were the most powerful and aggressive of the military groups. There a stockade had been erected, known as Camp Dodge. They prevented any individual hunting until after the needs of the camp had been supplied. The Cheyenne are finally persuaded that the newly established Dog Warrior Society is the real deal. Try contacting them via Messages to find out! Descubr lo que tu empresa podra llegar a alcanzar. They also raided settlements along the way. The society has a secret ritual that occupies four days and has a series of four hundred songs used in its ceremonies and dances. Wolf reformed the Bowstring Society, which had been nearly annihilated in the fight with the Kiowa. We also created 2.6 million jobs in the U.S.enough to employ the entire city of Houston, TX! He forced Around to finish off Little Creek.[5][6]. Witness Cheyenne warfare as illustrated in the oldest known Cheyenne ledgerbook, revealed in full color. Perhaps the greatest of these was known as the Dog Soldiers. Little Shield One of 5 young Cheyenne men on first night watch June 25-26 at Battle of the Little Big Horn. The Dog Men - or Dog Soldiers as the whites called them, were the most famous of the Cheyenne warrior societies. Bent says (Hyde, Beginning in the late 1830s, this society evolved into a separate, militaristic band that played a dominant role in Cheyenne resistance to the westward expansion of the United States in the area of present-day Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, and Wyoming, where the Cheyenne had settled in the early nineteenth century.[1].
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